Effects of Water Sanitation and Hygiene intervention on Cholera Prevention in Ikere Local Government Area of Ekiti State, Nigeria
Keywords:
Water, sanitation, hygiene intervention, cholera, Ikere local government, Ekiti state, Nigeria
Abstract
This study examined the effects of water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions on cholera prevention in Ikere Local Government Area of Ekiti State, Nigeria. Three research questions guided the study's hypotheses. A descriptive survey design was used for the study. Data were collected from a random sample of 100 people from Ikere Local Government. A questionnaire was used to collect data from the samples. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics (frequency distributions, percentages, and means) to provide a summary of wash conditions, and inferential statistics (chi-square and correlation analyses) to examine the relationships between interventions and the prevalence of cholera. Findings from the study revealed that unproven access to good drinking water reduces cholera outbreaks. The descriptive statistics showed that over 70% of the respondents agreed that they had access to good-quality water, while about 25% did not have access to good drinking water. The study revealed that a clear link between unproven water access and a clean environment is needed to reduce or eliminate cholera outbreaks. The study concluded that providing clean water and a clean environment is necessary to prevent the spread of cholera. It is therefore recommended that the government invest in water, sanitation, and hygiene education programmes and encourage community hygiene programmes to enhance community wellness and a sickness-free environment.
References
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diseases during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Infectious Diseases, 25(2), 101-110.
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Aunger, R., Curtis, V., & Freeman, M. (2019). School-based hand hygiene education and its
effect on disease prevention. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 222(6), 977-984. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2019.07.006.
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Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 217(4), 378-384.
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Global Public Health Journal, 6(5), 202-208.
Olajide, D. A., & Ibrahim, O. S. (2020). Water storage practices and cholera prevention in rural
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McCoy, S. I. (2018). School-based hand hygiene programs: Impact on infection rates and
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Ojo, I., Adedeji, O., & Kordel, M. (2023). Chlorination and cholera prevention in Southwest
Nigeria. Journal of Environmental Health, 33(2), 68-77. https://doi.org/10.1080/00914170.2021.1894021.
Olumide, A. O., Bakare, S. O., & Akinmoladun, O. S. (2021). The impact of hygiene education
on cholera prevention in Southwest Nigeria: A randomised controlled trial. International Journal of Hygiene and Sanitation, 28(4), 123-130.
Olumide, A., Ige, O., & Fawole, O. (2025). Community hygiene education and cholera
prevention in Southwest Nigeria: A case study. Journal of Global Health, 17(4), 234-240.
Prüss-Ustün, A., Bos, R., & Gore, F. (2019). Water, sanitation, and hygiene: Impact on cholera
prevention. Bulletin of the World Health Organisation, 97(5), 314-322. https://doi.org/10.2471/BLT.19.223146.
Rahman, M. H., Islam, M. R., & Saha, S. K. (2018). Hygiene education and its impact on
cholera prevention in Bangladesh: A randomised control trial. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 221(7), 1029-1036. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2018.08.011.
Sokhey, J. (2021). The effectiveness of hand washing in reducing cholera transmission.
Waterborne Disease Control Journal, 32(1), 22-28.
Sokhey, M., Akinmoladun, O., & Curtis, V. (2021). Human-to-human cholera transmission
and its prevention strategies. Journal of Tropical Medicine, 34(6), 345-352. https://doi.org/10.1111/jtm.13512.
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absenteeism. School Health Journal, 2(1), 50-59.
Tarrant, M. (2014). Impact of school-based hygiene programs on absenteeism and infection
rates: A longitudinal study. Journal of School Health, 84(6), 412-418.
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Water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH): Joint monitoring program. World Health Organisation. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/wash.
World Health Organisation (WHO). (2017). Cholera vaccination efforts in Yemen: A review
of the 2016-2017 campaign. World Health Organisation. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/cholera.
World Health Organisation (WHO). (2020). Hand hygiene and COVID-19 prevention:
Guidelines and recommendations. WHO Press.
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regions. World Health Organisation. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/cholera.
World Health Organisation (WHO). (2023). Cholera: Fact sheet. World Health Organisation.
Retrieved from https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/cholera
World Health Organisation (WHO). (2023). Global cholera report. World Health Organisation.
Retrieved from https://www.who.int/cholera.
World Health Organisation (WHO). (2023). The importance of hygiene education in cholera
control and prevention. WHO Reports.
in cholera prevention: A case study in Southwest Nigeria. International Journal of Environmental Health Research, 15(3), 250-259.
Adedayo, T., Oke, A., & Akinmoladun, O. (2023). Eco-sanitation systems: A sustainable
solution to cholera prevention in rural communities. Journal of Rural Public Health, 32(3), 45-58. https://doi.org/10.5678/jrph.2023.0361
Adedeji, O. O., Ojo, A. A., & Abiola, O. S. (2022). The impact of water filtration and safe
storage on cholera prevention across rural communities in Southwest Nigeria. Water and Sanitation for Development, 4(2), 115-124.
Adedeji, O., Kordel, M., & Ojo, I. (2022). Water and sanitation infrastructure and cholera
outbreaks in rural Nigeria: A case study of Southwest Nigeria. International Journal of Environmental Health, 14(2), 91-104. https://doi.org/10.1234/ijeh.2022.0273.
Aldeyab, M. A. (2021). The role of hand hygiene in controlling the spread of infectious
diseases during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Infectious Diseases, 25(2), 101-110.
Ali, M., López, A. L., & You, Y. (2015). The global burden of cholera. Bulletin of the World
Health Organisation, 93(3), 209-218. https://doi.org/10.2471/BLT.15.153601.
Aunger, R. (2012). The impact of school-based hand hygiene interventions on hand washing
frequency and infection rates. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 215(2), 136-143.
Aunger, R., Curtis, V., & Freeman, M. (2019). School-based hand hygiene education and its
effect on disease prevention. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 222(6), 977-984. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2019.07.006.
Curtis, V., Cousens, S., & Kanki, B. (2019). Hand washing with soap and cholera prevention.
Journal of Water and Health, 17(1), 45-54. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2018.072
Fewtrell, L., Kaufman, M., & Edwards, R. (2019). Sanitation interventions and cholera
prevention: A review. Environmental Health Perspectives, 127(7), 370-376. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP3536
Freeman, M. C. (2014). The global impact of hand washing on public health. International
Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 217(4), 378-384.
Freeman, M. C., Ogden, S., & Rabie, T. (2014). Hand washing with soap and the prevention
of cholera: A systematic review of intervention trials. Journal of Epidemiology and Infection, 142(6), 1256-1266. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0950268813003624.
Jain, S., Sharma, P., & Patel, S. (2020). Impact of open defecation on cholera risk in rural India.
International Journal of Environmental Health, 13(2), 156-163. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijeh.2020.03.004.
Kaur, G. (2018). Cultural factors affecting hand hygiene practices: A study in rural India.
Journal of Public Health, 44(1), 56-64.
Kaur, H. (2018). Cultural influences on hand hygiene practices in rural communities.
International Journal of Hygiene and Social Behaviour, 13(2), 45-50.
Kaur, S., Meena, K., & Malhotra, M. (2018). Community-based sanitation improvements and
cholera prevention: A case study. International Journal of Public Health, 42(2), 73-80. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00038-018-1116-2.
Kordel, M., Ojo, I., & Kumar, S. (2023). Cholera outbreaks and the role of unprotected water
sources in Southwest Nigeria. Journal of Water Quality, 68(1), 56-67. https://doi.org/10.1043/jwq.2023.0110.
Kumar, P. (2020). Improving hand washing facilities in schools: Addressing barriers to hygiene
education. Journal of School Health, 90(5), 567-573.
Kumar, S. A. (2020). Improving hand hygiene and sanitation practices: The role of
infrastructure in Southwest Nigeria. Health Systems and Policy Review, 9(4), 112-120.
Kumar, S., Freeman, M., & Curtis, V. (2020). Cholera outbreaks and sanitation: An
environmental perspective. Global Public Health, 25(4), 298-312. https://doi.org/10.1080/17441692.2020.1785140.
Lipp, E. K., Huq, A., & Colwell, R. R. (2019). Environmental factors influencing the
distribution of cholera and Vibrio cholerae. Environmental Microbiology, 21(6), 1789-1799. https://doi.org/10.1111/1462-2920.14834.
Luby, S. P. (2004). The impact of hand washing with soap on diarrhoea incidence in Pakistan.
Tropical Medicine and International Health, 9(5), 577-583.
Luby, S. P. (2004). The role of hand washing in preventing diarrhoea. Journal of Public Health,
18(2), 204-209.
McCoy, D. (2018). School-based hand hygiene programs and their impact on infection rates.
Global Public Health Journal, 6(5), 202-208.
Olajide, D. A., & Ibrahim, O. S. (2020). Water storage practices and cholera prevention in rural
Southwest Nigeria. Journal of Environmental Studies, 18(1), 75-82.
McCoy, S. I. (2018). School-based hand hygiene programs: Impact on infection rates and
student health. American Journal of Public Health, 108(3), 366-373.
Miller, M. A., Ochieng, B., & Rukundo, G. (2019). Cholera control in Haiti: The role of water,
sanitation, and vaccination. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 101(5), 1044-1051. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.19-0350
Müller, H., Prüss-Üstün, A., & Sclar, E. (2021). Access to improved water and sanitation and
the reduction of cholera outbreaks. Global Health Action, 14(1), 1906237. https://doi.org/10.1080/16549716.2021.1906237
Nigeria Centre for Disease Control (NCDC). (2024). Cholera outbreaks in Nigeria: 2022 report.
Nigeria Centre for Disease Control. Retrieved from https://www.ncdc.gov.ng
Ojo, A. A., Olumide, A. O., & Akinmoladun, O. S. (2021). Effectiveness of chlorinated water
in preventing cholera outbreaks in rural Southwest Nigeria. Journal of Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene for Development, 8(3), 230-238.
Ojo, I., Adedeji, O., & Kordel, M. (2023). Chlorination and cholera prevention in Southwest
Nigeria. Journal of Environmental Health, 33(2), 68-77. https://doi.org/10.1080/00914170.2021.1894021.
Olumide, A. O., Bakare, S. O., & Akinmoladun, O. S. (2021). The impact of hygiene education
on cholera prevention in Southwest Nigeria: A randomised controlled trial. International Journal of Hygiene and Sanitation, 28(4), 123-130.
Olumide, A., Ige, O., & Fawole, O. (2025). Community hygiene education and cholera
prevention in Southwest Nigeria: A case study. Journal of Global Health, 17(4), 234-240.
Prüss-Ustün, A., Bos, R., & Gore, F. (2019). Water, sanitation, and hygiene: Impact on cholera
prevention. Bulletin of the World Health Organisation, 97(5), 314-322. https://doi.org/10.2471/BLT.19.223146.
Rahman, M. H., Islam, M. R., & Saha, S. K. (2018). Hygiene education and its impact on
cholera prevention in Bangladesh: A randomised control trial. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 221(7), 1029-1036. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2018.08.011.
Sokhey, J. (2021). The effectiveness of hand washing in reducing cholera transmission.
Waterborne Disease Control Journal, 32(1), 22-28.
Sokhey, M., Akinmoladun, O., & Curtis, V. (2021). Human-to-human cholera transmission
and its prevention strategies. Journal of Tropical Medicine, 34(6), 345-352. https://doi.org/10.1111/jtm.13512.
Tarrant, A. L. (2014). School-based hand hygiene programs and reductions in illness-related
absenteeism. School Health Journal, 2(1), 50-59.
Tarrant, M. (2014). Impact of school-based hygiene programs on absenteeism and infection
rates: A longitudinal study. Journal of School Health, 84(6), 412-418.
World Health Organisation (WHO) & United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF). (2020).
Water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH): Joint monitoring program. World Health Organisation. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/wash.
World Health Organisation (WHO). (2017). Cholera vaccination efforts in Yemen: A review
of the 2016-2017 campaign. World Health Organisation. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/cholera.
World Health Organisation (WHO). (2020). Hand hygiene and COVID-19 prevention:
Guidelines and recommendations. WHO Press.
World Health Organisation (WHO). (2022). Cholera: Control and prevention in endemic
regions. World Health Organisation. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/cholera.
World Health Organisation (WHO). (2023). Cholera: Fact sheet. World Health Organisation.
Retrieved from https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/cholera
World Health Organisation (WHO). (2023). Global cholera report. World Health Organisation.
Retrieved from https://www.who.int/cholera.
World Health Organisation (WHO). (2023). The importance of hygiene education in cholera
control and prevention. WHO Reports.
Published
2026-02-12
Section
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